- Point Mutations: single-base substitutions (silent, missense, nonsense)
- Frameshift Mutations: insertions/deletions altering reading frame
- Chromosomal Mutations: deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations

Sources of genetic diversity, mutation types, and Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium
Genetic variation arises from mutation, recombination, and random mating. Mutation types include point, frameshift, and chromosomal. Population genetics models (Hardy–Weinberg) predict allele frequencies under ideal conditions.
Failure of chromosome pairs to separate during meiosis I or II → gametes with abnormal chromosome numbers (aneuploidy). Example: Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome) results from nondisjunction of chromosome 21.
1. A deletion of one base causes:
2. Trisomy 21 results from:
3. In Hardy–Weinberg, q = 1 − p. If p = 0.7, q = ___.